Merge pull request #12296 from poettering/coding-style-sections
split CODING_STYLE document into multiple thematic sections
This commit is contained in:
commit
cc83684947
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@ -4,14 +4,16 @@ title: Coding Style
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# Coding Style
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# Coding Style
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## Formatting
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- 8ch indent, no tabs, except for files in `man/` which are 2ch indent, and
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- 8ch indent, no tabs, except for files in `man/` which are 2ch indent, and
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still no tabs, and shell scripts, which are 4ch indent, and no tabs either.
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still no tabs, and shell scripts, which are 4ch indent, and no tabs either.
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- We prefer `/* comments */` over `// comments` in code you commit, please. This
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- We prefer `/* comments */` over `// comments` in code you commit,
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way `// comments` are left for developers to use for local, temporary
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please. This way `// comments` are left for developers to use for local,
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commenting of code for debug purposes (i.e. uncommittable stuff), making such
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temporary commenting of code for debug purposes (i.e. uncommittable stuff),
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comments easily discernible from explanatory, documenting code comments
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making such comments easily discernible from explanatory, documenting code
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(i.e. committable stuff).
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comments (i.e. committable stuff).
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- Don't break code lines too eagerly. We do **not** force line breaks at 80ch,
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- Don't break code lines too eagerly. We do **not** force line breaks at 80ch,
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all of today's screens should be much larger than that. But then again, don't
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all of today's screens should be much larger than that. But then again, don't
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@ -21,69 +23,7 @@ title: Coding Style
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note that emacs loads `.dir-locals.el` automatically, but vim needs to be
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note that emacs loads `.dir-locals.el` automatically, but vim needs to be
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configured to load `.vimrc`, see that file for instructions.
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configured to load `.vimrc`, see that file for instructions.
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- Variables and functions **must** be static, unless they have a
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- Try to write this:
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prototype, and are supposed to be exported.
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- structs in `PascalCase` (with exceptions, such as public API structs),
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variables and functions in `snake_case`.
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- The destructors always deregister the object from the next bigger
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object, not the other way around.
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- To minimize strict aliasing violations, we prefer unions over casting.
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- For robustness reasons, destructors should be able to destruct
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half-initialized objects, too.
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- Error codes are returned as negative `Exxx`. e.g. `return -EINVAL`. There
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are some exceptions: for constructors, it is OK to return `NULL` on
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OOM. For lookup functions, `NULL` is fine too for "not found".
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Be strict with this. When you write a function that can fail due to
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more than one cause, it *really* should have an `int` as the return value
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for the error code.
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- Do not bother with error checking whether writing to stdout/stderr
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worked.
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- Do not log errors from "library" code, only do so from "main
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program" code. (With one exception: it is OK to log with DEBUG level
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from any code, with the exception of maybe inner loops).
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- Always check OOM. There is no excuse. In program code, you can use
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`log_oom()` for then printing a short message, but not in "library" code.
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- Do not issue NSS requests (that includes user name and host name
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lookups) from PID 1 as this might trigger deadlocks when those
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lookups involve synchronously talking to services that we would need
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to start up.
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- Do not synchronously talk to any other service from PID 1, due to
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risk of deadlocks.
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- Avoid fixed-size string buffers, unless you really know the maximum
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size and that maximum size is small. They are a source of errors,
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since they possibly result in truncated strings. It is often nicer
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to use dynamic memory, `alloca()` or VLAs. If you do allocate fixed-size
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strings on the stack, then it is probably only OK if you either
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use a maximum size such as `LINE_MAX`, or count in detail the maximum
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size a string can have. (`DECIMAL_STR_MAX` and `DECIMAL_STR_WIDTH`
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macros are your friends for this!)
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Or in other words, if you use `char buf[256]` then you are likely
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doing something wrong!
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- Stay uniform. For example, always use `usec_t` for time
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values. Do not mix `usec` and `msec`, and `usec` and whatnot.
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- Make use of `_cleanup_free_` and friends. It makes your code much
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nicer to read (and shorter)!
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- Be exceptionally careful when formatting and parsing floating point
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numbers. Their syntax is locale dependent (i.e. `5.000` in en_US is
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generally understood as 5, while in de_DE as 5000.).
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- Try to use this:
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```c
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```c
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void foo() {
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void foo() {
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|
@ -98,9 +38,7 @@ title: Coding Style
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}
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}
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```
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```
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But it is OK if you do not.
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- Single-line `if` blocks should not be enclosed in `{}`. Write this:
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- Single-line `if` blocks should not be enclosed in `{}`. Use this:
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```c
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```c
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if (foobar)
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if (foobar)
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@ -117,347 +55,51 @@ title: Coding Style
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- Do not write `foo ()`, write `foo()`.
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- Do not write `foo ()`, write `foo()`.
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- Please use `streq()` and `strneq()` instead of `strcmp()`, `strncmp()` where
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## Code Organization and Semantics
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applicable (i.e. wherever you just care about equality/inequality, not about
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the sorting order).
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- Preferably allocate stack variables on the top of the block:
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- Please name structures in `PascalCase` (with exceptions, such as public API
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structs), variables and functions in `snake_case`.
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```c
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- Avoid static variables, except for caches and very few other cases. Think
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{
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about thread-safety! While most of our code is never used in threaded
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int a, b;
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environments, at least the library code should make sure it works correctly
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in them. Instead of doing a lot of locking for that, we tend to prefer using
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a = 5;
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TLS to do per-thread caching (which only works for small, fixed-size cache
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b = a;
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objects), or we disable caching for any thread that is not the main
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}
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thread. Use `is_main_thread()` to detect whether the calling thread is the
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```
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main thread.
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- Unless you allocate an array, `double` is always a better choice
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than `float`. Processors speak `double` natively anyway, so there is
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no speed benefit, and on calls like `printf()` `float`s get promoted
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to `double`s anyway, so there is no point.
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- Do not mix function invocations with variable definitions in one
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line. Wrong:
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```c
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{
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int a = foobar();
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uint64_t x = 7;
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}
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```
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Right:
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```c
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{
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int a;
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uint64_t x = 7;
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a = foobar();
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}
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```
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- Use `goto` for cleaning up, and only use it for that. i.e. you may
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only jump to the end of a function, and little else. Never jump
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backwards!
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- Think about the types you use. If a value cannot sensibly be
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negative, do not use `int`, but use `unsigned`.
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- Use `char` only for actual characters. Use `uint8_t` or `int8_t`
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when you actually mean a byte-sized signed or unsigned
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integers. When referring to a generic byte, we generally prefer the
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unsigned variant `uint8_t`. Do not use types based on `short`. They
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*never* make sense. Use `int`, `long`, `long long`, all in
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unsigned and signed fashion, and the fixed-size types
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`uint8_t`, `uint16_t`, `uint32_t`, `uint64_t`, `int8_t`, `int16_t`, `int32_t` and so on,
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as well as `size_t`, but nothing else. Do not use kernel types like
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`u32` and so on, leave that to the kernel.
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- Public API calls (i.e. functions exported by our shared libraries)
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must be marked `_public_` and need to be prefixed with `sd_`. No
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other functions should be prefixed like that.
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- In public API calls, you **must** validate all your input arguments for
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programming error with `assert_return()` and return a sensible return
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code. In all other calls, it is recommended to check for programming
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errors with a more brutal `assert()`. We are more forgiving to public
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users than for ourselves! Note that `assert()` and `assert_return()`
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really only should be used for detecting programming errors, not for
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runtime errors. `assert()` and `assert_return()` by usage of `_likely_()`
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inform the compiler that he should not expect these checks to fail,
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and they inform fellow programmers about the expected validity and
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range of parameters.
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- Never use `strtol()`, `atoi()` and similar calls. Use `safe_atoli()`,
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`safe_atou32()` and suchlike instead. They are much nicer to use in
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most cases and correctly check for parsing errors.
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- For every function you add, think about whether it is a "logging"
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function or a "non-logging" function. "Logging" functions do logging
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on their own, "non-logging" function never log on their own and
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expect their callers to log. All functions in "library" code,
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i.e. in `src/shared/` and suchlike must be "non-logging". Every time a
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"logging" function calls a "non-logging" function, it should log
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about the resulting errors. If a "logging" function calls another
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"logging" function, then it should not generate log messages, so
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that log messages are not generated twice for the same errors.
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- If possible, do a combined log & return operation:
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```c
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r = operation(...);
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if (r < 0)
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return log_(error|warning|notice|...)_errno(r, "Failed to ...: %m");
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```
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If the error value is "synthetic", i.e. it was not received from
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the called function, use `SYNTHETIC_ERRNO` wrapper to tell the logging
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system to not log the errno value, but still return it:
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```c
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n = read(..., s, sizeof s);
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if (n != sizeof s)
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return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EIO), "Failed to read ...");
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```
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- Avoid static variables, except for caches and very few other
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|
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cases. Think about thread-safety! While most of our code is never
|
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used in threaded environments, at least the library code should make
|
|
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sure it works correctly in them. Instead of doing a lot of locking
|
|
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for that, we tend to prefer using TLS to do per-thread caching (which
|
|
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only works for small, fixed-size cache objects), or we disable
|
|
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caching for any thread that is not the main thread. Use
|
|
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`is_main_thread()` to detect whether the calling thread is the main
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thread.
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- Command line option parsing:
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- Do not print full `help()` on error, be specific about the error.
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- Do not print messages to stdout on error.
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- Do not POSIX_ME_HARDER unless necessary, i.e. avoid `+` in option string.
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- Do not write functions that clobber call-by-reference variables on
|
- Do not write functions that clobber call-by-reference variables on
|
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failure. Use temporary variables for these cases and change the
|
failure. Use temporary variables for these cases and change the passed in
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passed in variables only on success.
|
variables only on success.
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- When you allocate a file descriptor, it should be made `O_CLOEXEC`
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right from the beginning, as none of our files should leak to forked
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binaries by default. Hence, whenever you open a file, `O_CLOEXEC` must
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be specified, right from the beginning. This also applies to
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sockets. Effectively, this means that all invocations to:
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- `open()` must get `O_CLOEXEC` passed,
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- `socket()` and `socketpair()` must get `SOCK_CLOEXEC` passed,
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- `recvmsg()` must get `MSG_CMSG_CLOEXEC` set,
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- `F_DUPFD_CLOEXEC` should be used instead of `F_DUPFD`, and so on,
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- invocations of `fopen()` should take `e`.
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|
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- We never use the POSIX version of `basename()` (which glibc defines it in
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`libgen.h`), only the GNU version (which glibc defines in `string.h`).
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|
||||||
The only reason to include `libgen.h` is because `dirname()`
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|
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is needed. Every time you need that please immediately undefine
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|
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`basename()`, and add a comment about it, so that no code ever ends up
|
|
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using the POSIX version!
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|
|
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- Use the bool type for booleans, not integers. One exception: in public
|
|
||||||
headers (i.e those in `src/systemd/sd-*.h`) use integers after all, as `bool`
|
|
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is C99 and in our public APIs we try to stick to C89 (with a few extension).
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- When you invoke certain calls like `unlink()`, or `mkdir_p()` and you
|
|
||||||
know it is safe to ignore the error it might return (because a later
|
|
||||||
call would detect the failure anyway, or because the error is in an
|
|
||||||
error path and you thus couldn't do anything about it anyway), then
|
|
||||||
make this clear by casting the invocation explicitly to `(void)`. Code
|
|
||||||
checks like Coverity understand that, and will not complain about
|
|
||||||
ignored error codes. Hence, please use this:
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
```c
|
|
||||||
(void) unlink("/foo/bar/baz");
|
|
||||||
```
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
instead of just this:
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
```c
|
|
||||||
unlink("/foo/bar/baz");
|
|
||||||
```
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
Don't cast function calls to `(void)` that return no error
|
|
||||||
conditions. Specifically, the various `xyz_unref()` calls that return a `NULL`
|
|
||||||
object shouldn't be cast to `(void)`, since not using the return value does not
|
|
||||||
hide any errors.
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- Don't invoke `exit()`, ever. It is not replacement for proper error
|
|
||||||
handling. Please escalate errors up your call chain, and use normal
|
|
||||||
`return` to exit from the main function of a process. If you
|
|
||||||
`fork()`ed off a child process, please use `_exit()` instead of `exit()`,
|
|
||||||
so that the exit handlers are not run.
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- Please never use `dup()`. Use `fcntl(fd, F_DUPFD_CLOEXEC, 3)`
|
|
||||||
instead. For two reason: first, you want `O_CLOEXEC` set on the new `fd`
|
|
||||||
(see above). Second, `dup()` will happily duplicate your `fd` as 0, 1,
|
|
||||||
2, i.e. stdin, stdout, stderr, should those `fd`s be closed. Given the
|
|
||||||
special semantics of those `fd`s, it's probably a good idea to avoid
|
|
||||||
them. `F_DUPFD_CLOEXEC` with `3` as parameter avoids them.
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- When you define a destructor or `unref()` call for an object, please
|
|
||||||
accept a `NULL` object and simply treat this as NOP. This is similar
|
|
||||||
to how libc `free()` works, which accepts `NULL` pointers and becomes a
|
|
||||||
NOP for them. By following this scheme a lot of `if` checks can be
|
|
||||||
removed before invoking your destructor, which makes the code
|
|
||||||
substantially more readable and robust.
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- Related to this: when you define a destructor or `unref()` call for an
|
|
||||||
object, please make it return the same type it takes and always
|
|
||||||
return `NULL` from it. This allows writing code like this:
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
```c
|
|
||||||
p = foobar_unref(p);
|
|
||||||
```
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
which will always work regardless if `p` is initialized or not, and
|
|
||||||
guarantees that `p` is `NULL` afterwards, all in just one line.
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- Use `alloca()`, but never forget that it is not OK to invoke `alloca()`
|
|
||||||
within a loop or within function call parameters. `alloca()` memory is
|
|
||||||
released at the end of a function, and not at the end of a `{}`
|
|
||||||
block. Thus, if you invoke it in a loop, you keep increasing the
|
|
||||||
stack pointer without ever releasing memory again. (VLAs have better
|
|
||||||
behavior in this case, so consider using them as an alternative.)
|
|
||||||
Regarding not using `alloca()` within function parameters, see the
|
|
||||||
BUGS section of the `alloca(3)` man page.
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- Use `memzero()` or even better `zero()` instead of `memset(..., 0, ...)`
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- Instead of using `memzero()`/`memset()` to initialize structs allocated
|
|
||||||
on the stack, please try to use c99 structure initializers. It's
|
|
||||||
short, prettier and actually even faster at execution. Hence:
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
```c
|
|
||||||
struct foobar t = {
|
|
||||||
.foo = 7,
|
|
||||||
.bar = "bazz",
|
|
||||||
};
|
|
||||||
```
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
instead of:
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
```c
|
|
||||||
struct foobar t;
|
|
||||||
zero(t);
|
|
||||||
t.foo = 7;
|
|
||||||
t.bar = "bazz";
|
|
||||||
```
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- When returning a return code from `main()`, please preferably use
|
|
||||||
`EXIT_FAILURE` and `EXIT_SUCCESS` as defined by libc.
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- The order in which header files are included doesn't matter too
|
- The order in which header files are included doesn't matter too
|
||||||
much. systemd-internal headers must not rely on an include order, so
|
much. systemd-internal headers must not rely on an include order, so it is
|
||||||
it is safe to include them in any order possible.
|
safe to include them in any order possible. However, to not clutter global
|
||||||
However, to not clutter global includes, and to make sure internal
|
includes, and to make sure internal definitions will not affect global
|
||||||
definitions will not affect global headers, please always include the
|
headers, please always include the headers of external components first
|
||||||
headers of external components first (these are all headers enclosed
|
(these are all headers enclosed in <>), followed by our own exported headers
|
||||||
in <>), followed by our own exported headers (usually everything
|
(usually everything that's prefixed by `sd-`), and then followed by internal
|
||||||
that's prefixed by `sd-`), and then followed by internal headers.
|
headers. Furthermore, in all three groups, order all includes alphabetically
|
||||||
Furthermore, in all three groups, order all includes alphabetically
|
|
||||||
so duplicate includes can easily be detected.
|
so duplicate includes can easily be detected.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- To implement an endless loop, use `for (;;)` rather than `while (1)`.
|
- Please avoid using global variables as much as you can. And if you do use
|
||||||
The latter is a bit ugly anyway, since you probably really
|
them make sure they are static at least, instead of exported. Especially in
|
||||||
meant `while (true)`. To avoid the discussion what the right
|
library-like code it is important to avoid global variables. Why are global
|
||||||
always-true expression for an infinite while loop is, our
|
variables bad? They usually hinder generic reusability of code (since they
|
||||||
recommendation is to simply write it without any such expression by
|
break in threaded programs, and usually would require locking there), and as
|
||||||
using `for (;;)`.
|
the code using them has side-effects make programs non-transparent. That
|
||||||
|
said, there are many cases where they explicitly make a lot of sense, and are
|
||||||
- Never use the `off_t` type, and particularly avoid it in public
|
OK to use. For example, the log level and target in `log.c` is stored in a
|
||||||
APIs. It's really weirdly defined, as it usually is 64-bit and we
|
global variable, and that's OK and probably expected by most. Also in many
|
||||||
don't support it any other way, but it could in theory also be
|
cases we cache data in global variables. If you add more caches like this,
|
||||||
32-bit. Which one it is depends on a compiler switch chosen by the
|
please be careful however, and think about threading. Only use static
|
||||||
compiled program, which hence corrupts APIs using it unless they can
|
variables if you are sure that thread-safety doesn't matter in your
|
||||||
also follow the program's choice. Moreover, in systemd we should
|
case. Alternatively, consider using TLS, which is pretty easy to use with
|
||||||
parse values the same way on all architectures and cannot expose
|
gcc's `thread_local` concept. It's also OK to store data that is inherently
|
||||||
`off_t` values over D-Bus. To avoid any confusion regarding conversion
|
global in global variables, for example data parsed from command lines, see
|
||||||
and ABIs, always use simply `uint64_t` directly.
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- Commit message subject lines should be prefixed with an appropriate
|
|
||||||
component name of some kind. For example "journal: ", "nspawn: " and
|
|
||||||
so on.
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- Do not use "Signed-Off-By:" in your commit messages. That's a kernel
|
|
||||||
thing we don't do in the systemd project.
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- Avoid leaving long-running child processes around, i.e. `fork()`s that
|
|
||||||
are not followed quickly by an `execv()` in the child. Resource
|
|
||||||
management is unclear in this case, and memory CoW will result in
|
|
||||||
unexpected penalties in the parent much, much later on.
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- Don't block execution for arbitrary amounts of time using `usleep()`
|
|
||||||
or a similar call, unless you really know what you do. Just "giving
|
|
||||||
something some time", or so is a lazy excuse. Always wait for the
|
|
||||||
proper event, instead of doing time-based poll loops.
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- To determine the length of a constant string `"foo"`, don't bother with
|
|
||||||
`sizeof("foo")-1`, please use `strlen()` instead (both gcc and clang optimize
|
|
||||||
the call away for fixed strings). The only exception is when declaring an
|
|
||||||
array. In that case use STRLEN, which evaluates to a static constant and
|
|
||||||
doesn't force the compiler to create a VLA.
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- If you want to concatenate two or more strings, consider using `strjoina()`
|
|
||||||
or `strjoin()` rather than `asprintf()`, as the latter is a lot slower. This
|
|
||||||
matters particularly in inner loops (but note that `strjoina()` cannot be
|
|
||||||
used there).
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- Please avoid using global variables as much as you can. And if you
|
|
||||||
do use them make sure they are static at least, instead of
|
|
||||||
exported. Especially in library-like code it is important to avoid
|
|
||||||
global variables. Why are global variables bad? They usually hinder
|
|
||||||
generic reusability of code (since they break in threaded programs,
|
|
||||||
and usually would require locking there), and as the code using them
|
|
||||||
has side-effects make programs non-transparent. That said, there are
|
|
||||||
many cases where they explicitly make a lot of sense, and are OK to
|
|
||||||
use. For example, the log level and target in `log.c` is stored in a
|
|
||||||
global variable, and that's OK and probably expected by most. Also
|
|
||||||
in many cases we cache data in global variables. If you add more
|
|
||||||
caches like this, please be careful however, and think about
|
|
||||||
threading. Only use static variables if you are sure that
|
|
||||||
thread-safety doesn't matter in your case. Alternatively, consider
|
|
||||||
using TLS, which is pretty easy to use with gcc's `thread_local`
|
|
||||||
concept. It's also OK to store data that is inherently global in
|
|
||||||
global variables, for example data parsed from command lines, see
|
|
||||||
below.
|
below.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- If you parse a command line, and want to store the parsed parameters
|
|
||||||
in global variables, please consider prefixing their names with
|
|
||||||
`arg_`. We have been following this naming rule in most of our
|
|
||||||
tools, and we should continue to do so, as it makes it easy to
|
|
||||||
identify command line parameter variables, and makes it clear why it
|
|
||||||
is OK that they are global variables.
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- When exposing public C APIs, be careful what function parameters you make
|
|
||||||
`const`. For example, a parameter taking a context object should probably not
|
|
||||||
be `const`, even if you are writing an otherwise read-only accessor function
|
|
||||||
for it. The reason is that making it `const` fixates the contract that your
|
|
||||||
call won't alter the object ever, as part of the API. However, that's often
|
|
||||||
quite a promise, given that this even prohibits object-internal caching or
|
|
||||||
lazy initialization of object variables. Moreover, it's usually not too useful
|
|
||||||
for client applications. Hence, please be careful and avoid `const` on object
|
|
||||||
parameters, unless you are very sure `const` is appropriate.
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- Make sure to enforce limits on every user controllable resource. If the user
|
|
||||||
can allocate resources in your code, your code must enforce some form of
|
|
||||||
limits after which it will refuse operation. It's fine if it is hard-coded (at
|
|
||||||
least initially), but it needs to be there. This is particularly important
|
|
||||||
for objects that unprivileged users may allocate, but also matters for
|
|
||||||
everything else any user may allocated.
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- `htonl()`/`ntohl()` and `htons()`/`ntohs()` are weird. Please use `htobe32()` and
|
|
||||||
`htobe16()` instead, it's much more descriptive, and actually says what really
|
|
||||||
is happening, after all `htonl()` and `htons()` don't operate on `long`s and
|
|
||||||
`short`s as their name would suggest, but on `uint32_t` and `uint16_t`. Also,
|
|
||||||
"network byte order" is just a weird name for "big endian", hence we might
|
|
||||||
want to call it "big endian" right-away.
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- You might wonder what kind of common code belongs in `src/shared/` and what
|
- You might wonder what kind of common code belongs in `src/shared/` and what
|
||||||
belongs in `src/basic/`. The split is like this: anything that is used to
|
belongs in `src/basic/`. The split is like this: anything that is used to
|
||||||
implement the public shared object we provide (sd-bus, sd-login, sd-id128,
|
implement the public shared object we provide (sd-bus, sd-login, sd-id128,
|
||||||
|
@ -489,25 +131,348 @@ title: Coding Style
|
||||||
aren't, we are happy to use GNU or Linux APIs, and expect non-GNU
|
aren't, we are happy to use GNU or Linux APIs, and expect non-GNU
|
||||||
implementations of libc to catch up with glibc.
|
implementations of libc to catch up with glibc.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- Whenever installing a signal handler, make sure to set `SA_RESTART` for it, so
|
## Using C Constructs
|
||||||
that interrupted system calls are automatically restarted, and we minimize
|
|
||||||
hassles with handling `EINTR` (in particular as `EINTR` handling is pretty broken
|
- Preferably allocate local variables on the top of the block:
|
||||||
on Linux).
|
|
||||||
|
```c
|
||||||
|
{
|
||||||
|
int a, b;
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
a = 5;
|
||||||
|
b = a;
|
||||||
|
}
|
||||||
|
```
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Do not mix function invocations with variable definitions in one line. Wrong:
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
```c
|
||||||
|
{
|
||||||
|
int a = foobar();
|
||||||
|
uint64_t x = 7;
|
||||||
|
}
|
||||||
|
```
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
Right:
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
```c
|
||||||
|
{
|
||||||
|
int a;
|
||||||
|
uint64_t x = 7;
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
a = foobar();
|
||||||
|
}
|
||||||
|
```
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Use `goto` for cleaning up, and only use it for that. i.e. you may only jump
|
||||||
|
to the end of a function, and little else. Never jump backwards!
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- To minimize strict aliasing violations, we prefer unions over casting.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Instead of using `memzero()`/`memset()` to initialize structs allocated on
|
||||||
|
the stack, please try to use c99 structure initializers. It's short, prettier
|
||||||
|
and actually even faster at execution. Hence:
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
```c
|
||||||
|
struct foobar t = {
|
||||||
|
.foo = 7,
|
||||||
|
.bar = "bazz",
|
||||||
|
};
|
||||||
|
```
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
instead of:
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
```c
|
||||||
|
struct foobar t;
|
||||||
|
zero(t);
|
||||||
|
t.foo = 7;
|
||||||
|
t.bar = "bazz";
|
||||||
|
```
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- To implement an endless loop, use `for (;;)` rather than `while (1)`. The
|
||||||
|
latter is a bit ugly anyway, since you probably really meant `while
|
||||||
|
(true)`. To avoid the discussion what the right always-true expression for an
|
||||||
|
infinite while loop is, our recommendation is to simply write it without any
|
||||||
|
such expression by using `for (;;)`.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- To determine the length of a constant string `"foo"`, don't bother with
|
||||||
|
`sizeof("foo")-1`, please use `strlen()` instead (both gcc and clang optimize
|
||||||
|
the call away for fixed strings). The only exception is when declaring an
|
||||||
|
array. In that case use STRLEN, which evaluates to a static constant and
|
||||||
|
doesn't force the compiler to create a VLA.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
## Destructors
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- The destructors always deregister the object from the next bigger object, not
|
||||||
|
the other way around.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- For robustness reasons, destructors should be able to destruct
|
||||||
|
half-initialized objects, too.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- When you define a destructor or `unref()` call for an object, please accept a
|
||||||
|
`NULL` object and simply treat this as NOP. This is similar to how libc
|
||||||
|
`free()` works, which accepts `NULL` pointers and becomes a NOP for them. By
|
||||||
|
following this scheme a lot of `if` checks can be removed before invoking
|
||||||
|
your destructor, which makes the code substantially more readable and robust.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Related to this: when you define a destructor or `unref()` call for an
|
||||||
|
object, please make it return the same type it takes and always return `NULL`
|
||||||
|
from it. This allows writing code like this:
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
```c
|
||||||
|
p = foobar_unref(p);
|
||||||
|
```
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
which will always work regardless if `p` is initialized or not,x and
|
||||||
|
guarantees that `p` is `NULL` afterwards, all in just one line.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
## Error Handling
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Error codes are returned as negative `Exxx`. e.g. `return -EINVAL`. There are
|
||||||
|
some exceptions: for constructors, it is OK to return `NULL` on OOM. For
|
||||||
|
lookup functions, `NULL` is fine too for "not found".
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
Be strict with this. When you write a function that can fail due to more than
|
||||||
|
one cause, it *really* should have an `int` as the return value for the error
|
||||||
|
code.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Do not bother with error checking whether writing to stdout/stderr worked.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Do not log errors from "library" code, only do so from "main program"
|
||||||
|
code. (With one exception: it is OK to log with DEBUG level from any code,
|
||||||
|
with the exception of maybe inner loops).
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- In public API calls, you **must** validate all your input arguments for
|
||||||
|
programming error with `assert_return()` and return a sensible return
|
||||||
|
code. In all other calls, it is recommended to check for programming errors
|
||||||
|
with a more brutal `assert()`. We are more forgiving to public users than for
|
||||||
|
ourselves! Note that `assert()` and `assert_return()` really only should be
|
||||||
|
used for detecting programming errors, not for runtime errors. `assert()` and
|
||||||
|
`assert_return()` by usage of `_likely_()` inform the compiler that he should
|
||||||
|
not expect these checks to fail, and they inform fellow programmers about the
|
||||||
|
expected validity and range of parameters.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- When you invoke certain calls like `unlink()`, or `mkdir_p()` and you know it
|
||||||
|
is safe to ignore the error it might return (because a later call would
|
||||||
|
detect the failure anyway, or because the error is in an error path and you
|
||||||
|
thus couldn't do anything about it anyway), then make this clear by casting
|
||||||
|
the invocation explicitly to `(void)`. Code checks like Coverity understand
|
||||||
|
that, and will not complain about ignored error codes. Hence, please use
|
||||||
|
this:
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
```c
|
||||||
|
(void) unlink("/foo/bar/baz");
|
||||||
|
```
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
instead of just this:
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
```c
|
||||||
|
unlink("/foo/bar/baz");
|
||||||
|
```
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
Don't cast function calls to `(void)` that return no error
|
||||||
|
conditions. Specifically, the various `xyz_unref()` calls that return a
|
||||||
|
`NULL` object shouldn't be cast to `(void)`, since not using the return value
|
||||||
|
does not hide any errors.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- When returning a return code from `main()`, please preferably use
|
||||||
|
`EXIT_FAILURE` and `EXIT_SUCCESS` as defined by libc.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
## Logging
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- For every function you add, think about whether it is a "logging" function or
|
||||||
|
a "non-logging" function. "Logging" functions do logging on their own,
|
||||||
|
"non-logging" function never log on their own and expect their callers to
|
||||||
|
log. All functions in "library" code, i.e. in `src/shared/` and suchlike must
|
||||||
|
be "non-logging". Every time a "logging" function calls a "non-logging"
|
||||||
|
function, it should log about the resulting errors. If a "logging" function
|
||||||
|
calls another "logging" function, then it should not generate log messages,
|
||||||
|
so that log messages are not generated twice for the same errors.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- If possible, do a combined log & return operation:
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
```c
|
||||||
|
r = operation(...);
|
||||||
|
if (r < 0)
|
||||||
|
return log_(error|warning|notice|...)_errno(r, "Failed to ...: %m");
|
||||||
|
```
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
If the error value is "synthetic", i.e. it was not received from
|
||||||
|
the called function, use `SYNTHETIC_ERRNO` wrapper to tell the logging
|
||||||
|
system to not log the errno value, but still return it:
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
```c
|
||||||
|
n = read(..., s, sizeof s);
|
||||||
|
if (n != sizeof s)
|
||||||
|
return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EIO), "Failed to read ...");
|
||||||
|
```
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
## Memory Allocation
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Always check OOM. There is no excuse. In program code, you can use
|
||||||
|
`log_oom()` for then printing a short message, but not in "library" code.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Avoid fixed-size string buffers, unless you really know the maximum size and
|
||||||
|
that maximum size is small. They are a source of errors, since they possibly
|
||||||
|
result in truncated strings. It is often nicer to use dynamic memory,
|
||||||
|
`alloca()` or VLAs. If you do allocate fixed-size strings on the stack, then
|
||||||
|
it is probably only OK if you either use a maximum size such as `LINE_MAX`,
|
||||||
|
or count in detail the maximum size a string can have. (`DECIMAL_STR_MAX` and
|
||||||
|
`DECIMAL_STR_WIDTH` macros are your friends for this!)
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
Or in other words, if you use `char buf[256]` then you are likely doing
|
||||||
|
something wrong!
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Make use of `_cleanup_free_` and friends. It makes your code much nicer to
|
||||||
|
read (and shorter)!
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Use `alloca()`, but never forget that it is not OK to invoke `alloca()`
|
||||||
|
within a loop or within function call parameters. `alloca()` memory is
|
||||||
|
released at the end of a function, and not at the end of a `{}` block. Thus,
|
||||||
|
if you invoke it in a loop, you keep increasing the stack pointer without
|
||||||
|
ever releasing memory again. (VLAs have better behavior in this case, so
|
||||||
|
consider using them as an alternative.) Regarding not using `alloca()`
|
||||||
|
within function parameters, see the BUGS section of the `alloca(3)` man page.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- If you want to concatenate two or more strings, consider using `strjoina()`
|
||||||
|
or `strjoin()` rather than `asprintf()`, as the latter is a lot slower. This
|
||||||
|
matters particularly in inner loops (but note that `strjoina()` cannot be
|
||||||
|
used there).
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
## Runtime Behaviour
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Avoid leaving long-running child processes around, i.e. `fork()`s that are
|
||||||
|
not followed quickly by an `execv()` in the child. Resource management is
|
||||||
|
unclear in this case, and memory CoW will result in unexpected penalties in
|
||||||
|
the parent much, much later on.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Don't block execution for arbitrary amounts of time using `usleep()` or a
|
||||||
|
similar call, unless you really know what you do. Just "giving something some
|
||||||
|
time", or so is a lazy excuse. Always wait for the proper event, instead of
|
||||||
|
doing time-based poll loops.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Whenever installing a signal handler, make sure to set `SA_RESTART` for it,
|
||||||
|
so that interrupted system calls are automatically restarted, and we minimize
|
||||||
|
hassles with handling `EINTR` (in particular as `EINTR` handling is pretty
|
||||||
|
broken on Linux).
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- When applying C-style unescaping as well as specifier expansion on the same
|
- When applying C-style unescaping as well as specifier expansion on the same
|
||||||
string, always apply the C-style unescaping fist, followed by the specifier
|
string, always apply the C-style unescaping fist, followed by the specifier
|
||||||
expansion. When doing the reverse, make sure to escape `%` in specifier-style
|
expansion. When doing the reverse, make sure to escape `%` in specifier-style
|
||||||
first (i.e. `%` → `%%`), and then do C-style escaping where necessary.
|
first (i.e. `%` → `%%`), and then do C-style escaping where necessary.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- It's a good idea to use `O_NONBLOCK` when opening 'foreign' regular files, i.e.
|
- Be exceptionally careful when formatting and parsing floating point
|
||||||
file system objects that are supposed to be regular files whose paths where
|
numbers. Their syntax is locale dependent (i.e. `5.000` in en_US is generally
|
||||||
specified by the user and hence might actually refer to other types of file
|
understood as 5, while in de_DE as 5000.).
|
||||||
system objects. This is a good idea so that we don't end up blocking on
|
|
||||||
|
- Make sure to enforce limits on every user controllable resource. If the user
|
||||||
|
can allocate resources in your code, your code must enforce some form of
|
||||||
|
limits after which it will refuse operation. It's fine if it is hard-coded
|
||||||
|
(at least initially), but it needs to be there. This is particularly
|
||||||
|
important for objects that unprivileged users may allocate, but also matters
|
||||||
|
for everything else any user may allocated.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
## Types
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Think about the types you use. If a value cannot sensibly be negative, do not
|
||||||
|
use `int`, but use `unsigned`.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Use `char` only for actual characters. Use `uint8_t` or `int8_t` when you
|
||||||
|
actually mean a byte-sized signed or unsigned integers. When referring to a
|
||||||
|
generic byte, we generally prefer the unsigned variant `uint8_t`. Do not use
|
||||||
|
types based on `short`. They *never* make sense. Use `int`, `long`, `long
|
||||||
|
long`, all in unsigned and signed fashion, and the fixed-size types
|
||||||
|
`uint8_t`, `uint16_t`, `uint32_t`, `uint64_t`, `int8_t`, `int16_t`, `int32_t`
|
||||||
|
and so on, as well as `size_t`, but nothing else. Do not use kernel types
|
||||||
|
like `u32` and so on, leave that to the kernel.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Stay uniform. For example, always use `usec_t` for time values. Do not mix
|
||||||
|
`usec` and `msec`, and `usec` and whatnot.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Never use the `off_t` type, and particularly avoid it in public APIs. It's
|
||||||
|
really weirdly defined, as it usually is 64-bit and we don't support it any
|
||||||
|
other way, but it could in theory also be 32-bit. Which one it is depends on
|
||||||
|
a compiler switch chosen by the compiled program, which hence corrupts APIs
|
||||||
|
using it unless they can also follow the program's choice. Moreover, in
|
||||||
|
systemd we should parse values the same way on all architectures and cannot
|
||||||
|
expose `off_t` values over D-Bus. To avoid any confusion regarding conversion
|
||||||
|
and ABIs, always use simply `uint64_t` directly.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Unless you allocate an array, `double` is always a better choice than
|
||||||
|
`float`. Processors speak `double` natively anyway, so there is no speed
|
||||||
|
benefit, and on calls like `printf()` `float`s get promoted to `double`s
|
||||||
|
anyway, so there is no point.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Use the bool type for booleans, not integers. One exception: in public
|
||||||
|
headers (i.e those in `src/systemd/sd-*.h`) use integers after all, as `bool`
|
||||||
|
is C99 and in our public APIs we try to stick to C89 (with a few extension).
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
## Deadlocks
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Do not issue NSS requests (that includes user name and host name lookups)
|
||||||
|
from PID 1 as this might trigger deadlocks when those lookups involve
|
||||||
|
synchronously talking to services that we would need to start up.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Do not synchronously talk to any other service from PID 1, due to risk of
|
||||||
|
deadlocks.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
## File Descriptors
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- When you allocate a file descriptor, it should be made `O_CLOEXEC` right from
|
||||||
|
the beginning, as none of our files should leak to forked binaries by
|
||||||
|
default. Hence, whenever you open a file, `O_CLOEXEC` must be specified,
|
||||||
|
right from the beginning. This also applies to sockets. Effectively, this
|
||||||
|
means that all invocations to:
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- `open()` must get `O_CLOEXEC` passed,
|
||||||
|
- `socket()` and `socketpair()` must get `SOCK_CLOEXEC` passed,
|
||||||
|
- `recvmsg()` must get `MSG_CMSG_CLOEXEC` set,
|
||||||
|
- `F_DUPFD_CLOEXEC` should be used instead of `F_DUPFD`, and so on,
|
||||||
|
- invocations of `fopen()` should take `e`.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- It's a good idea to use `O_NONBLOCK` when opening 'foreign' regular files,
|
||||||
|
i.e. file system objects that are supposed to be regular files whose paths
|
||||||
|
where specified by the user and hence might actually refer to other types of
|
||||||
|
file system objects. This is a good idea so that we don't end up blocking on
|
||||||
'strange' file nodes, for example if the user pointed us to a FIFO or device
|
'strange' file nodes, for example if the user pointed us to a FIFO or device
|
||||||
node which may block when opening. Moreover even for actual regular files
|
node which may block when opening. Moreover even for actual regular files
|
||||||
`O_NONBLOCK` has a benefit: it bypasses any mandatory lock that might be in
|
`O_NONBLOCK` has a benefit: it bypasses any mandatory lock that might be in
|
||||||
effect on the regular file. If in doubt consider turning off `O_NONBLOCK` again
|
effect on the regular file. If in doubt consider turning off `O_NONBLOCK`
|
||||||
after opening.
|
again after opening.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
## Command Line
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- If you parse a command line, and want to store the parsed parameters in
|
||||||
|
global variables, please consider prefixing their names with `arg_`. We have
|
||||||
|
been following this naming rule in most of our tools, and we should continue
|
||||||
|
to do so, as it makes it easy to identify command line parameter variables,
|
||||||
|
and makes it clear why it is OK that they are global variables.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Command line option parsing:
|
||||||
|
- Do not print full `help()` on error, be specific about the error.
|
||||||
|
- Do not print messages to stdout on error.
|
||||||
|
- Do not POSIX_ME_HARDER unless necessary, i.e. avoid `+` in option string.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
## Exporting Symbols
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Variables and functions **must** be static, unless they have a prototype, and
|
||||||
|
are supposed to be exported.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Public API calls (i.e. functions exported by our shared libraries)
|
||||||
|
must be marked `_public_` and need to be prefixed with `sd_`. No
|
||||||
|
other functions should be prefixed like that.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- When exposing public C APIs, be careful what function parameters you make
|
||||||
|
`const`. For example, a parameter taking a context object should probably not
|
||||||
|
be `const`, even if you are writing an otherwise read-only accessor function
|
||||||
|
for it. The reason is that making it `const` fixates the contract that your
|
||||||
|
call won't alter the object ever, as part of the API. However, that's often
|
||||||
|
quite a promise, given that this even prohibits object-internal caching or
|
||||||
|
lazy initialization of object variables. Moreover, it's usually not too
|
||||||
|
useful for client applications. Hence, please be careful and avoid `const` on
|
||||||
|
object parameters, unless you are very sure `const` is appropriate.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
## Referencing Concepts
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- When referring to a configuration file option in the documentation and such,
|
- When referring to a configuration file option in the documentation and such,
|
||||||
please always suffix it with `=`, to indicate that it is a configuration file
|
please always suffix it with `=`, to indicate that it is a configuration file
|
||||||
|
@ -521,6 +486,52 @@ title: Coding Style
|
||||||
suffix it with `/`, to indicate that it is a directory, not a regular file
|
suffix it with `/`, to indicate that it is a directory, not a regular file
|
||||||
(or other file system object).
|
(or other file system object).
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
## Functions to Avoid
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Use `memzero()` or even better `zero()` instead of `memset(..., 0, ...)`
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Please use `streq()` and `strneq()` instead of `strcmp()`, `strncmp()` where
|
||||||
|
applicable (i.e. wherever you just care about equality/inequality, not about
|
||||||
|
the sorting order).
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Never use `strtol()`, `atoi()` and similar calls. Use `safe_atoli()`,
|
||||||
|
`safe_atou32()` and suchlike instead. They are much nicer to use in most
|
||||||
|
cases and correctly check for parsing errors.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- `htonl()`/`ntohl()` and `htons()`/`ntohs()` are weird. Please use `htobe32()`
|
||||||
|
and `htobe16()` instead, it's much more descriptive, and actually says what
|
||||||
|
really is happening, after all `htonl()` and `htons()` don't operate on
|
||||||
|
`long`s and `short`s as their name would suggest, but on `uint32_t` and
|
||||||
|
`uint16_t`. Also, "network byte order" is just a weird name for "big endian",
|
||||||
|
hence we might want to call it "big endian" right-away.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Please never use `dup()`. Use `fcntl(fd, F_DUPFD_CLOEXEC, 3)` instead. For
|
||||||
|
two reason: first, you want `O_CLOEXEC` set on the new `fd` (see
|
||||||
|
above). Second, `dup()` will happily duplicate your `fd` as 0, 1, 2,
|
||||||
|
i.e. stdin, stdout, stderr, should those `fd`s be closed. Given the special
|
||||||
|
semantics of those `fd`s, it's probably a good idea to avoid
|
||||||
|
them. `F_DUPFD_CLOEXEC` with `3` as parameter avoids them.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
- Don't use `fgets()`, it's too hard to properly handle errors such as overly
|
- Don't use `fgets()`, it's too hard to properly handle errors such as overly
|
||||||
long lines. Use `read_line()` instead, which is our own function that handles
|
long lines. Use `read_line()` instead, which is our own function that handles
|
||||||
this much nicer.
|
this much nicer.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Don't invoke `exit()`, ever. It is not replacement for proper error
|
||||||
|
handling. Please escalate errors up your call chain, and use normal `return`
|
||||||
|
to exit from the main function of a process. If you `fork()`ed off a child
|
||||||
|
process, please use `_exit()` instead of `exit()`, so that the exit handlers
|
||||||
|
are not run.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- We never use the POSIX version of `basename()` (which glibc defines it in
|
||||||
|
`libgen.h`), only the GNU version (which glibc defines in `string.h`). The
|
||||||
|
only reason to include `libgen.h` is because `dirname()` is needed. Every
|
||||||
|
time you need that please immediately undefine `basename()`, and add a
|
||||||
|
comment about it, so that no code ever ends up using the POSIX version!
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
# Committing to git
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Commit message subject lines should be prefixed with an appropriate component
|
||||||
|
name of some kind. For example "journal: ", "nspawn: " and so on.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
- Do not use "Signed-Off-By:" in your commit messages. That's a kernel thing we
|
||||||
|
don't do in the systemd project.
|
||||||
|
|
Loading…
Reference in a new issue